Шпаргалка на англ.языке / Шпаргалки по лексикологии.doc
1. The object of Lexicology. General, special, historical, descriptive; sociolinguistics.
Lexicology - is the branch of linguistic dealing with vocabulary of the language and the properties of words or main units of the language. General lexicology studies linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages, general studying of words and voc. irrespective of specific features of any part of language. Special linguistic - devotes its attention to the description of the characteristic peculiarities in the given language. Historical linguistic - studies the evolution of any vocabulary as well as single elements, discusses the origin of words. Descriptive linguistic - deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development, studies the function of words and their specific features as characteristic inherent in the system. Socio- linguistics - a branch of ling. dealing with casual relations between the way the language develops and the fact of social life. Every new phenomenon in human society finds reflection in a vocabulary.
2. The connection of lexicology with phonetics, stylistics, grammar.
Phonetics. On acoustic level words consist of phonemes and these phonemes participate in the significations. They have no meaning but their function is to build up morphemes, which served to distinguish between meanings. Stylistics studies many problems treated in lexicology: these are the problem of meaning, synonyms, differentiation of vocabulary according to the sphere of communication. Grammar. It attends to establish rules for the correct use of the language in society. Every word alongside with the lex. meaning has some grammatical meaning.
3. The Structural Aspects of the word.
The word is a unit of speech, which serves the purposes of human communication materially representing the group of sounds possessing a meaning susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic unity. So it can be defined as: a unity of communication; it can be perceived as the total of sounds; structurally it possess some functions.
There is external (morphological) and internal (the meaning - semantic) structure of the word.
4. A brief Account of the main characteristics of a word.
The distinguishing between external (morphological) and internal (the meaning - semantic) structure of the word.
Unity. The word has external and internal unity. Formal unity is sometimes inaccurately interpreted as indivisibility of the word. But we can divide it into morphemes but their components are linked together. We can compare words to groups whose components have a certain structural freedom. (E.g.: bluebell (type of flower) - blue bell (colour and object)) If it is word we can change the whole of it, phrase - all components.
Susceptibility to grammatical employment. Words can be used in different grammatical forms and thus they realize the interrelations.
5. The main problems of Lexicology
Word building. It's connected with word structure and process of coining new words. Semantics. It's the study of meaning. 2 approach of studying this problem: syntagmatic (the word is studied in its liner relationships with neighboring words.), paradigmatics (word is studied in its relationships with other words in voc. system; with the synonymy, antonymy and different stylistic characteristics.). E.g.: girl - bird, chick, colee, damsel .
Phraseology. The branch of lex. specializing in word groups which are characterized by stability of structure and transferred meaning. E.g.: To be at a loss.
The study of voc. as a system.
2 approaches: synchronically (at a given stage of development), diachronically (in the contents of the process through it grew, developed, acquired in modern form.).
Formal and Informal style.
The style can be divided into 2: formal and informal, depending on the situations. The situations can be formal (professional communication, reception, lecture, talk to a teacher or manager), informal (talk to friends, relatives, an intimate letter).
Informal vocabulary is used in two-way everyday conversation, when you are at home, or feeling like home. The choice of words in each particular situation is determined not only by formal or informal situation but also by the speaker education, cultural background, age group, his occupation and regional characteristics. That's why the inf. Words are subdivided into 3 subgroups: colloquialisms, slang, and dialect words.
Formal words. They are divided into 3 groups: learned words, professional words, obsolete and archaic words.
Colloquial speech. The main features and characteristics.
They are the least exclusive (90% of people use them every day). Their sphere of communication is wide.
They are subdivided: literary coll. (used by educated people, printer pages: pall, chum - friend; bite, snake - meal), familiar (used by the young and semi-educated, it is more emotional and free: ta-ta - good bye; doc - doctor), low (“speech of persons who may only be described as uncultivated” - G.P.Kropp. These are words of illiterate language.).
Definition of slang. Main features.
It is informal non-standard voc., usually intelligible only to people from a particular region or social group such as doctors, sailors.
The main features:
It is a lang. of coll. style considered as below the level of standard educational speech and consisting either of new words or of current wards employed in some special sense.
Slang is metaphor.
Each slang metaphor is ruted in a joke with cinical colouring.
The circle of users is narrower than that of coll. words It's mainly used by the young and uneducated.
Slang is subject to rapid change. So it is short-lived.
Dialect and variant. The main features of dialect words.
Dialect - is a variety of language, which prevails in a districts with local peculiarities of voc., pronunciation, phrase.
Variant - is original variety possessing a literary form.
In G.B there are 2 variants: Scottish, Irish. There are 5 dialects: Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group has 4 or 5dialects.
Cockney - Southern dialect (London). It exists in 2 levels: as spoken by educated and uneducated people. Features of Cockney dialect
Interchange between [W] and [V]: [vel] - [wel] - well
The voiceless and voiced dental spirants: [O] - [f] fing - thing; [ ] - [v] faver - father.
Interchange of the aspirated and non-aspirated initial sounds: heart - `eart.
Substitution of diphthongs: day- [dai], way - [wai].
Features: 1. Dialect peculiarities especially those of voc are constantly being incorporated into coll. speech. From these levels they can come into common stock. E.g.: car, tram ,trolley - used to be dialect words.
Using dialect words is the bright, expressive means.
Learned words.
They are associated with printed pages.
Sphere of usage; they are used by educated and highly educated people.
They are subdivided into:
Scientific prose - identified by their dry flavour: comprise, compile, homogeneous.
Officialese - words of the official, bueurocratic language. They should be avoided in speech: to assist - to help, to proceed - to go, approximately - about.
Literary words - described as refined, they are used in descriptive passages of fiction. They are represented by the words of Roman languages and though fully adopted to English phonetic system still sound foreign: solitude, sentiment, fascination, cordial, allusive.
Modes of poetic diction - they are lofty, high-flown, archaic, coloured, used only in poetry: alas, constancy - верность, duth - do.
Archaisms, obsolete words and historisms, their general characteristics.
Obsolete words - are no longer in use, especially out of use for at least a century. Archaic words - are current in earlier times, but rare in present usage. Historisms - are words denoting objects and phenomena, which are thing of the past and no longer exist.
Features:
They stand close to the learned words (modes of poetic dictions)
Archaisms are associated with printed pages.
They are moribund, are out of circulation, rejected by living lang. and are not used in conversational situations.
They are met in historical novels and poetry. They are used to create a particular period of time.
Sometimes archaic words may undergo a sudden reveal: kin used to be archaic word.
E.g.: thou - you, thy - your, nay -no, aye- yes.
Professional terminology. Features of term. Problems in terminology.
Terminology is the set of technical words used in a particular subject such as physics, art, lang. study. Terminological system embraces many of specialized fields such as scientific, professional or treat areas. Every field of modern activity has its specialized vocabulary.
Term is a word or word group, which is specially used by a particular brunch of science, technology, trade, arts to convey a concept, which is specific to this particular activity.
Features of term:
Terms are deprived of emotional colouring.
They are not for general use, they are used by narrow circle of people.
Sometimes they may obtain more generalized meaning (electricity)
Terms can be polysemantic and can have synonyms.
Terms can be simple containing word or complex: electromotive force.
The origin of number of terms is Latin: index, metaphor, Present Indefinite.
They are built up according to the rules of word building.
Terms are borrowed from other languages.
Problems of terminology.
Whether term loses its terminological status when it comes into common usage or not. Most scholars think that it's quite natural that a great number of terms pass into general usage. E.g.: measles, electricity.
Synonymy and polisemy in terminology. Some scholars consider the term to have no synonyms and to be monosemantic. It sounds reasonable but in reality terms do possess synonyms and many terms are polysemantic. E.g.: to dress-перевязывать рану (medical), готовить землю к посеву (agricultural), выстраивать в шеренгу (military).
Basic vocabulary words, their main features.
Basic voc. - a central group, a basic core of the language. It doesn't include all words but only that part which comprises lexical foundation of the language.
Main features:
B.V is the central group of the vocabulary, its living core. They show a great stability, undergo changes but slowly. They denote objects and phenomena of everyday importance.
Stylistically these words are neutral, that is they are used in all kinds of situations both formal and informal. They are used by everybody every day.
These are words without which no human communication would be possible.
Basic vocabulary words have no connotations. Their meaning is board and directly conveys the concept without supplying any additional information.
14. Native element of English vocabulary.
These words are specifically English having no cognates in other languages whereas for Indo-European and Germanic words such cognates can always be found. They stand quite along in the vocabulary system of indo-European languages: bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, woman, always, daisy. The English proper element also contains all the later formations, that is, words which were made after the 5th century according to English word building patterns both from native and borrowed morphemes. For instance, the adjective beautiful built from the French borrowed root and the native suffix belongs to the English proper element. It is natural, that the quantity of such words is immense.
15. The 1st and ancient Latin borrowing
Appeared before the migration of Germanic tribes to Britain. They occupied for many centuries the north part of central Europe and carried the trade with Roman Empire after a number of words. The ancestors of Anglo-Saxons were at rather primitive stage of development, especially if compared with the high civilization and refinement of Rome. They were primitive, castle tribes and knew nothing about land cultivation; so trading with Romans they gained knowledge of new and useful things.
1. New things to eat: wine, pepper, pear, plum butter, cherry, cheese.
2. Household articles: dish, kitchen, cup.
3. Names of domestic animals: ass, mule
4. Measures: pound, inch.
5. Words, which were borrowed sometime later after migration of Germanic tribes to British Isles. These words came to Celtic: street, camp, port.
16. Celtic and Scandinavian borrowings
Celtic borrowings (15th century)
They are one of the most ancient groups of borrowings. Celts were the original inhabitants of modern Britain, before the migration of Germanic, tribes. Angles, Saxons, Jutes - these tribes migrated across the sea to the Britain. One of the Celtic tribes, Brits, gave the name to the whole country. During the confrontation with Germanic tribes, Celts yielded most of their territories. They retreated on the north and southwest.
1.Bald, glen, druid, bard, cradle, bin, brat, down.
2.Place means name of rivers, hills, originated from Celtic words: uisge, exe, esk, Aberdeen, aber, dun, Dundee, London
3.English proper names: Evan, Arthur
4.Some Latin words: street, wall
5.Later borrowings: flannel, clan, robber, wisky, Tory.
Scandinavian borrowings (8 - 11 century)
These borrowings are opposed to all other groups of borrowings, due to the way of borrowing their meaning and finally to the fact that penetrated to the language. Only during 8 - 11 centuries and in later periods only single cases of borrowings can be noted.
During this period England underwent several Scandinavian invasions. As Scandinavians were at higher stage of development then Anglo - Saxons, most Scandinavian borrowings were notions and words of everyday live
1. nouns: sky, ski, root, wing, anger, fellow, gate, scar.
2.adjectives: happy, weak, ill, ugly, low, wrong.
3.Verbs: take, hit, call, want.
4.Propositions: them, they, their, same, till
5. Geographical names: Derby, Whitby, Rugby, Althorp, Linthorp
6. Certain words changed their meaning under the influence of Scandinavian words:
Dream (old English: joy), Bread (old English: piece)
17. Norman and Parisian borrowings.
Norman borrowings (most numerous group)
Norman French borrowings began with the famous battle of Hastings when English were defeated by the Normans. England became bilingual country and the impact on the English vocabulary made over this 2 hundred years period was immense. French words from the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect of social life. French became the lang. of state. Teaching was led in French, business documents were also written in French.
1. Administrative terms: state, government, council, power, country, people, nation,
2. Feudalism: liege, vassal, fief - these words are disused.
3. servant, prince, count, duck, baron.
4. words, denoting qualities: honor, glory, noble, fine, genteel.
5. Military terms: siege, defense, victory, conquest, captain.
6.Legal terms: judge, prison, slander, felony, fraud.
7. religion: perish, communion, parson, abbey, saint, vice, blame.
8.Education: people, library, science, pencil, pen.
9.Entertainment: moda, supper, dinner, pastry, to fry, dice, luxury, jewels.
10. Everyday life: table, plate, autumn, uncle.
11. Literature and art: to paint, colour, architecture, design, prose, story, volume, arch, vault.
18. Italian, Portugal, Spanish borrowings.
Italian borrowings.(at the end of renaissance)
1. The first group of them occurred during the renaissance period, among them: cornice, solo, colonnade, opera, concert, tempo.
2. Military terms: alarm, cartridge, cavalry, colonel, fantry.
lagoon, volcano, monkey, risk, gurgle, corridor, revolt, isolate.
Portugal, Spanish borrowings.
1. Spanish: comrade, ambuscade, dispatch.
2.Later borrowings: cigar, vacate, mosquito, chocolate, potato, tobacco
3. Portugal: cast, tank, port, cobra.
German borrowings.
1. Geology terms: zinc, quartz, cobalt.
2.Philosophical: objective, subjective, determinism.
3.Swindler, lobby, iceberg, waltz.
19. Some facts about Etymological structure of English vocabulary.
The percentage of borrowed words in the English vocabulary is rather high, about 67-70 %. This is explained by the country's eventful history and by its many international contacts.
Despite of a fact that French and Latin words are obviously prevail their frequency of occurrence is relevant in comparison with the native Anglo-Saxon heritage. The native element comprises a large number of high frequency words like articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, auxiliaries and also words denoting everyday objects and ideas.
The grammatical structure is essentially Germanic, having remained unchanged and unaffected by foreign influence. Syntactic structure remained also unaffected as far as morphological structure is concerned, the influence Latin and French isn't so high. It comprises in penetrated a few affixes no more.
Instead of being smashed and broken by the powerful intruding, the English language managed to preserve its essential structure and vastly enriched its expressive reserves with the new borrowings.
20. Stages of assimilation.
1. Fully assimilated words.
These words adjust themselves to the new environment and get adapted to the norms of the language. They undergo certain changes. But these words are not felt like foreign. (e.g. French word “sport” and the native “start”.) These words belong to the regular verbs.
2. Partially assimilated words.
borrowings non-assimilated semantically. They denote objects and phenomena peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed (e.g. “sari, tsar, sombrero”)
grammatically. Some Latin and Greek nouns retain their plural form (e.g. “datum-data”)
phonetically. 1. Some Scandinavian borrowings (sky,ski,skate)
2. Words with initial sounds “V, Z” (voice, zero)
3. Some French borrowings with stress on the final syllable (police, bourgeous, words with [g])
partly assimilated graphically. E.g. - “phoneme”
3. Non-assimilated words.
These words are not adjusted at all. They sound foreign, are not adapted to the grammatical, phonetical, semantical system of the lang. (dolce vita, coup'd'etat)
They are barbarisms.
21. Conditions and reasons of borrowings.
Conditions of borrowings:
War invasions or conquest when foreign words are imposed upon the related conquered nation.
Trade or international cultural relations. These conditions are most favorable for the borrowing process.
The divergence in the level of civilization of the 2 conflicted nations. Let's compare Norman conquest and Mongol-Tatar yoke. This represented a long period of impression as it was during Norman conquest but the imprint left by it on Russian vocabulary is comparatively insignificant. The difference between these 2 events is that Russian civilization and the language development at the time of Mongol-Tatar yoke were superior to those of invaders, that is why the language of oppressors was successfully resisted. On the other hand the Norman culture of the 11th century was certainly superior to that of the Anglo-Saxons. That is why the impact of French on English vocabulary was so great.
Reasons of borrowings:
To fill a gap in vocabulary when it is lacked for some new objects and notions. (Latin “plum, butter”)
To represent the same concept in some new aspect, to supply a new shade of meaning or emotional coloring and thus to enlarge group of synonyms.
22. International words.
These words are borrowed by several languages, they convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication.
Names of sciences and art: philosophy, music, comedy.
Political terms: politics, policy, progress,democracy.
Scientific and technological advances: radio, antibiotic, sputnic.
Sports: foot-ball, golf, tennis.
Food, fruits, vegetables: banana, mango, chocolate.
Features:
Express different notions and objects of different scenes: technology and so on.
They are known to many languages
They are one and the same language sores
They are one and the same meaning in all languages
They are easily recognizable in all languages by show some peculiar of a given language
23. Etymological doublets.
Etymological doublets - words originating from the same etymological source but differing in phonetic shape and in meanings.
Native - native. These doublets are due to deviance of different meanings of one and the same word: shade - shadow, of - off, mead - meadow
Native- borrowed element: shirt - skirt, shriek - screech
Borrowed - borrowed element. This group presents words borrowed from the same language twice but in different periods: liquor - liqueur, travel - travail.
Words represented by 2 borrowings from different languages, which are historically dissented from the same root: sir - senior, treason - tradition.
Words, representing a shortened word and the one from which it was derived: history - story, fantasy - fancy, fanatic - fan, defense - fence, shadow - shade.
24. Translation loans.
They are borrowings of a special kind.
Features:
They are not taken into voc. of another language in the same phonetic shape in which they have been functioning in their own lang., but undergo the process of translation.
They are only compound words.
E.g.: masterpiece (from German Meisterstuck), wonder child (German Wunderkind), first dancer (Italian prima-ballerina), collective farm (Russian колхоз).
25. Affixation. Morpeme. Free and Bound form. Functional and derivational affixes. Suffixes, Prefixes, Roots.
Words are divisible into smaller units, which are called morphemes, which occur in speech only as constituent part of words. The morphemes can be free (if it may stand alone without changing its meaning) and bound (it is always bound to smth. else). E.g.: sportive (sport may occur alone), elegant (eleg is bound form).
Morphemes are subdivided into 2 classes: roots and affixes. Affixes fall into prefixes and suffixes. Affixes are subdivided into:
Functional affixes. They serve to convey grammatical meaning. They build different forms of one and the same word. E.g.: near-nearer-nearest
Derivational affixes. They serve to supply the stem with components of lexical and lexico-grammatical meaning and form different words. E.g.: heart-hearty, care-careless.
Root is ultimate constituent element, which remains after the removal of all functional and derivational affixes; it is the common element of words. Affixes are always bound forms.
Suffix is a derivational morpheme following the stem and forming a new derivative in different parts of speech. E.g.: hearten-hearty-heartless.